Early theories of instruction have provided a foundation for the field of instructional design in several tangible ways. In particular, the areas of ID that have been greatly impacted include: the design and management of instruction, use of instructional objectives, analysis of learner characteristics, sequencing of objectives and activities, instructional strategy selection, and feedback.
Design and management of instruction – Most of the ID models in the literature adhere to an instrumental approach (Visscher-Voerman & Gustafson, 2004) consisting of the alignment of objectives, instructional activities, and assessment (Tyler, 1949; Richey et al., 2011). Theories of mastery learning and individualized instruction (Carroll, 1963; Bloom, 1976) which give students opportunity to work at their own pace to meet the objectives also impact instructional design and management. According to Dick and Carey (1978) in The Systematic Design of Instruction, “Systematically designed instruction …can be used to determine each student’s instructional needs in order to tailor each instruction to each student as much as possible” (Dick & Carey, 1978 as cited in Richey et al., 2011). In addition, Bruner’s (1966) cognitive theory of instruction with its four main concepts of predisposition to explore alternatives, optimal learning structure, effective sequence, and reinforcement through clear identification of “the nature and pacing of feedback and rewards” (Richey et al., 2011) has also provided a foundation for various models of instructional design and management. Heinich (1970) proposes one such model that incorporates Bruner’s theory as a systems approach using “well-developed technologies of instruction” and a network of teachers, subject-matter experts, and discipline –specific psychologists who work together to identify content and prepare activities, materials, and media (Richey et al., 2011).
Instructional objectives – Prior to Tyler’s (1949) advocacy for writing objectives based on desired student behavior outcomes, objectives were typically written in terms of content topics and activities the instructor wanted to cover. Along with Tyler’s recommendation that instructors consult multiple sources including the learners themselves, contemporary issues, subject-matter experts, and learning theories when writing objectives, Bloom’s Theory of Human Characteristics and School Learning also influences modern use of behavioral objectives by advocating for their alignment with both instruction and assessment strategies.
Analysis of learner characteristics – All of the early instructional theorists discussed in this chapter have contributed essential elements to the process of analyzing learner characteristics. Some of these contributions include: needs, interests and level of development (Tyler, 1949), recognizing general abilities, acknowledging the time required to learn a skill as well as how much time a student is willing to spend learning (Carroll, 1963), the importance of learner cognitive and affective background (Bloom, 1976), and predisposition to explore alternatives within problem solving (Bruner, 1966).
Sequencing of objectives and activities – In terms of sequencing, Ertmer & Newby (2013) point out that a key influence of mastery learning and individualized instruction, particularly Bloom’s (1976) theory is the “emphasis on mastering early steps before progressing to more complex levels of performance”. Bloom also emphasized hierarchical relationships and prerequisites among complex cognitive tasks, both of which are key elements in modern identification of subordinate and entry skills during the process of task analysis (Dick et al., 2009). In addition, Tyler (1949) and Bruner (1966) both believed that sequencing should support cumulative, long-term learning with experiences that build on one another. In particular, Bruner’s (1960) concept of a spiral curriculum has been applied to a wide range of contexts, from elementary to high school. When discussing the application of this concept, Bruner emphasizes that “a curriculum as it develops should revisit this basic ideas repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped the full formal apparatus that goes with them” (1960, p. 13).
Instructional strategy selection – Some of the key influences of the early instructional theories on modern instructional strategy selection include mastery learning’s emphasis on students working at their own pace or being offered remediation if needed (Carroll, 1963; Joyce & Weil, 1986), encouraging active participation and providing ample opportunities to practice target behaviors (Tyler, 1949; Bloom, 1976), and representation of content in a variety of formats like actions, picture, and symbols (Bruner, 1960). The contributions of Bruner in particular helped to lay the framework for the development of the ID theories of discovery learning, problem solving, and instructional scaffolding (Richey et al., 2011).
Feedback – Early theorists recommend giving feedback as a means to help learn fix their mistakes (Bruner, 1966; Bloom 1976). Some of the feedback strategies that have their origin with these early instructional theorists are verification and elaboration feedback (Kulhavy & Stock, 1989). Verification feedback is essentially the instructor providing confirmation to guide the learner whereas elaboration feedback provides learners feedback on the task itself, feedback regarding the process used to learn the task, and reflective feedback which “requires learners to justify their responses” (Richey et al., 2011).